Shih,J.L.,&Hsu,Y.(2016).AdvancingAdventureEducationUsingDigitalMotion-SensingGames.Educational
Technology&Society,19(4),178–189.
178ISSN1436-4522(online)and1176-3647(print).ThisarticleoftheJournalofEducationalTechnology&SocietyisavailableunderCreativeCommonsCC-BY-ND-NC
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AdvancingAdventureEducationUsingDigitalMotion-SensingGames
Ju-LingShih1andYu-JenHsu2
1NationalUniversityofTainan,Taiwan//2NationalUniversityofChiayi,Taiwan//juling@mail.nutn.edu.tw//
hsuyujen@mail.ncyu.edu.tw
Correspondingauthor
(SubmittedJuly3,2015;RevisedFebruary19,2016;AcceptedMarch18,2016)
ABSTRACT
ThisstudyusedtheXboxKinectandUnity3Dgameenginetodeveloptwomotion-sensinggamesinwhich
theparticipants,insimulatedscenarios,couldexperienceactivitiesthatareunattainableinreallife,become
immersedincollaborativeactivities,andexplorethevalueofadventureeducation.AdventureEducation
involvescoursesthatemphasizefirst-handlearningexperienceinwhichparticipantscooperateinsituated
environmentstoachievevariouslife-learningaims.Usingqualitativedatatosupplementquestionnaires,
systemrecordsandobservationsaswellasinterviews,resultsshowedthatdigitalgamescansubstantially
improvethelearningeffectivenessofadventureeducationthemesjustastraditionalphysicaladventure
educationactivities.Participantscanadvancetheirextrinsicbehaviors,suchasleadershipandcooperation,
andintrinsicmotivations,suchasreflectionandconfidence,throughthegames.Withappropriateguidance
andreflection,participantscandeveloptheirconceptualandsocialself.Motion-sensinggamesare
convenientandeffectivetoolsforadvancingphysicaladventureeducationactivities.
Keywords
Adventureeducation,Digitalgame-basedlearning,Motion-sensinggame
Introduction
Adventureeducationinvolvesvariousadventurousandchallengingtypesofgroupactivity,andwasestablishedby
theOutwardBoundSchoolintheUnitedStatesandEuropethroughthefieldactivitiesofboy-scoutcourses.In
1970,JerryPiehandGaryBakerusedvarioustypesofsimpleportabletoolsintheirProjectAdventurecourseand
integratedoutdooractivitiesintogeneralcoursesthatenablestudentstolearnteamwork,communication,
leadership,andintrospection(Prouty,1990).Adventureeducationemphasizeslearningthroughexperienceand
cultivatestheself-confidence,interpersonalinteractionability,andself-developmentofstudents.Theactivitiesare
oftendesignedwithrulesthatlimitthecommunicationchannelsofparticipants,requiringthemtoobservetheir
surroundingsandempathizewiththepeoplearoundthem.However,theeffectsoftheactivitiesdecreasewhenthe
situationbecomesdisordered.Thefacilitatormustthereforebeproficientlyequippedwithknowledgeandskillsto
guideparticipantsthroughtheactivitiesandreflectontheproblem-solvingprocesstocommunicatethethemesof
theactivities.Theobservationdutyofthefacilitatoriscriticalbecauseoneteachercanleadupto30participantsat
atime.Keyactions,communicationprocesses,andeventsmustberecordedinashorttime.
Someadventureeducationactivitiesaredifficulttopracticebecauseofpoorweatherconditions,outsized
equipment,ordangerousscenarios.Therefore,digitalgamesweredevelopedinthisstudytocreatesimulated
scenariosthroughwhichplayerscanexperienceactivitiesthatareseldomperformed.
Digitalgameshavebeenusedforlearninginvariousfields.Astechnologyandcreativityhaveadvanced,game
typesandinterfacedesignshavechangedsubstantially.Gamescanbeplayedusingkeyboards,mouse,andremote
andmotionsensors.Microsoftreleasedakinestheticgameconsole,XboxKinect,whichrevolutionizedthecontrol
rulesoftraditionalgames.Motion-sensingtechnologycandetectandpositionthemovementofplayerssothat
theycanoperatethegamesystemdirectlywithoutphysicalcontact.Insteadofahandheldorstampedecontroller,
playersusevoicecommandsorphysicalgestures.Abuilt-incameraisusedtocapturethemovementsofaplayer
ina3Dspace,thusenablingintuitiveinteractionwiththecharactersandobjectsinthegame.Virtualreality
providesplayerswithasenseofnovelty,increasingtheirmotivationtolearn.
ThisstudyinvolvedusinganXboxKinectandUnity3Dgameenginetodeveloptwomultiplayeradventure
educationgames.Thegamesaddressedcognitive,metacognitive,motivational,andbehavioralaspectsoflearning.
Thegamesweredevelopedbasedonadventureeducationactivitiestoenableparticipantstoenhancetheir
interpersonalrelationshipsthroughgroupinteraction.Thedigitalgamesemphasizedlearningprocessesthat
involveduser-initiatedcontrol,enablinguserstoconstructsituationsthatfittheirintrinsiccognitions,thus
improvingtheirlearningeffectiveness.Theparticipantsenhancedtheirlearningandproblem-solvingcapabilities
intheprocess(Perry,1998).
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Throughthepostgamereflections,theparticipantswereguidedinperceivingtheirrolesinthegroup,
understandingthemechanismofleadership,andcollaborativelysolvingproblems.Thecollaborativegaming
processeswererecordedusingcomputers,andresearchersconductedobservations.Questionnaireswereusedto
cross-analyzetheachievementsoftheparticipantsbasedonadventureeducationthemes,whichwastheprimary
goalofthisstudy.
Literaturereview
Adventureeducation
Adventureeducationisanexperientiallearningprocessinwhichpeopleconstructknowledgethroughdirect
experience,practicingskills,andstrengtheningvalues.Kolb(1984)definedlearningastheprocessoftransferring
experiencetoknowledge.Thistheorypresentsacyclicalmodeloflearningconsistingoffourstages,namely
concreteexperience,reflectiveobservation,abstractconceptualization,andactiveexperimentation,amongwhich
reflectiveobservationcanbeconsideredthemostcrucial.KolbandKolb(2005)statedthatlearningisa
continuousprocessthatoccursthroughinteractionwiththeenvironment.Suchaprocessdiffersfromformal
educationfromwhichpeopleinteractwiththeenvironment,objects,andpeople.Inaway,usingvirtualreality
gamestosimulatethephysicalworldwhichtheplayerscannotattendtointheirreallifeisconsideredasextended
applicationofexperientiallearning.TaffandAhmad(2007)statedthatpeoplelearninteractionstrategiesin
groupsandapplythemintheirdailylives.Throughgroupinteraction,individualslearntocreateandreflect.They
learntoadapttosocietybysolvingcomplexproblemsinlife.Itismoreenjoyableandcanincreaselearning
motivation.
Adventureeducationemploysathematicdesignmodelbyusingphysicallearningmaterialsinpredesigned
learningcontextstoguideparticipantstowarddiscoveringproblemsandidentifyingsolutions.Intheproblem-
solvingprocess,participantsareencouragedtoconductinterpersonalcommunicationtodevelopconfidence
throughteameffortandcollectiveresponsestofrustration.Agroupisamicrocosmofasociety.Experiential
learningemphasizesfouraspects:practice,methods,teaching,andprocesses(Doering,Miller,&Veletsianos,
2008).Throughactivities,simulatedsituationsenhanceparticipants’understandingofabstractconcepts.Inastep-
by-stepprocedure,thefocusofcoursecontentprogressesfrompersonalgrowthtocooperativeproblemsolving.
Throughcontinualgroupinteraction,theclassatmosphereimproves.Thecooperationprocessenablesparticipants
toattainasenseofachievementandunderstandtheadvantagesofgroupcooperation,andincreasestheirskills,
confidence,andknowledgeintakingactions.
Human(2006)consideredadventure-basedactivityacrucialaspectofoutdooreducation.TsaiandLiao(2008)
emphasizedthatoutdoorexperientiallearninginvolvesaseriesofgroupactivitiesthatguideparticipantstoward
discoveringindividualdifferences,promoteobservationallearning,increaseinterpersonaltrust,andenhance
groupdevelopment.Theadventureeducationactivitiescanbecategorizedintothreelevelsdependingonthe
content.High-riskactivitiesincludemountainclimbing,rockclimbing,rafting,wildnesssurvival,andsolitary
camping.Mid-riskactivitiesincludelowandhighropecourses.Low-riskactivitiesincludegroupdevelopment
activitiesthatguideparticipantsinbecomingacquaintedwitheachother,communicating,cooperating,solving
problems,andtrustingeachother.Severaloftheaforementionedactivitiesinvolveunstablevariationsinweather,
inaccessiblelocations,andpredefinedmentallimitations.Thus,simulatedenvironmentsandscenarioscanbeused
tocreatemoreexperientiallearningopportunitiesforparticipants.
Socialinteractioninsituations
Brown,Collins,andDuguid(1989)introducedsituatedlearningintheirpaper“SituatedCognitionandtheCulture
ofLearning.”Situatedlearningwasdevelopedbasedonconstructivism,suggestingthatlearnersshouldlearn
knowledgeandskillsinreal-lifesituationsbyusingsocialinteractiontocreatereasonableandmeaningful
interpretationsonwhichknowledgecanbebased.However,creatingreal-lifelearningcontextsbyusingthe
limitedclassroomspaceandresourcesavailabletoformaleducationisextremelydifficult.Inadditionto
situationalauthenticity,learningcontentthatencourageslearningtransferisessentialforenablingstudentsto
learnproblem-solvingstrategiesandforenhancingstudents’capabilities.
Insociallearningtheory,threeelements,people,theenvironment,andbehavior,areconsideredinterrelated.These
elementscoexistandcannotbearrangedinanorderorahierarchy;thisreciprocalrelationshipiscalledinteraction
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determinism(Bandura,1977).Toincreaseinteractionamongthethreeelements,cooperativelearningstrategies
areoftenapplied.
Cooperativelearningisalearningmethodthatinvolvesdividingstudentsintogroupsandallowingthemtowork
togethertoenhancelearning.Themethodcanbeusedtoteachspecificcontent,strengthencognitiveprocesses,
andenhancelearningachievements(Johnson&Johnson,1990).Studieshavedeterminedthatcooperative
learningconsistsofanexternalawardandgoalstructurethatcanstimulateinnerlearningmotivation.Slavin
(1990)indicatedthatrewardsandgoalsaretwointrinsicfactorsthatpromotegroupmemberstocollaborateto
achievegoals.Onlywhengroupgoalsareachievedcanpersonalgoalsbeattained.Conversely,forindividualsto
achievetheirpersonalgoals,groupmembersmustcollaborateclosely.Suchaninterdependentrelationshipforms
thestructureofinterpersonalinteraction.Knowledgeistheresultofsocialinteractionandmustbeinternalizedto
becomeintegratedintopersonalschema.Therefore,discussionandreflectiononaspectsofthesocialinteraction
processshouldbeemphasized.
Collaborativelearningcanengendersuchalearningsituationandfacilitatetheconstructionofknowledgein
groups.Collaborativelearningoccurswhengroupmemberspossesscollaborationskillsthatcanbeused
effectively.Asapositiveinterdependentrelationshipisestablished,groupmembersinternalizetheskillsthrough
repeatedpractice.Self-regulationisanotherfunctionofsociallearningtheory.
Digitalgame-basedlearning
Digitalgamesrefertoallgamesdesignedusingdigitaltechnology,software,orprogramming(Nanjappa,2001).
Digitalgameshaveentertainmentfunctionsandcanbenefitlearning(Hwang,Wu,&Chen,2012).LeeandChen
(2009)mentionedthatdigitalgamesareatoolthatparticipantscanusetodevelopproblem-solvingabilities.
H?m?l?inen(2008)andMannetal.(2002)haveassertedthatdigitalgamesfacilitateeducationbecausethey
enhanceandstimulatelearningmotivation,elicitingactiveparticipationinlearningactivities.Therefore,digital
gamescanbeintegratedintotheclassroomtoprovideparticipantswithopportunitiestodeveloptheircritical-and
creative-thinkingability.Thus,usingcooperativeproblemsolvingasthegoalofadigitalgameisameaningful
endeavor(Paraskeva,Mysirlaki,&Papagianni,2010).
Digitalgame-basedlearningentailsusingdigitalgamestotransformlearningexperiencesandfeedbackinto
learningcontent.Petraneketal.(1992)statedthatthefeedbackgeneratedbyagameincreasestheproblem-
solvingabilitiesofparticipants.Playerscansolveproblemsinthegametoobtainfeedback(Gredler,1996;Salen
&Zimmerman,2004)andcanreflectonfailuresresultingfromtheirmistakes.Therefore,inthegames,
participantslearnthroughtrialanderror.Kraiger,FordandSalas(1993)indicatedthatdigitalgamescanbeused
intheteachingprocesstoprovidestudentswithdeepimpressions.Inthegameenvironment,studentscan
continuallyattemptvariousproblem-solvingsolutionswithoutincurringinjuriesfrommistakendecisions.Among
alltechnology-mediatedlearningactivities,digitalgame-basedlearninghasbeenprovedtobeaneffectivemethod
forincreasingthelearningmotivationofstudents(Tüzün,Yilmaz-Soylu,Karakus,&Kizilkaya,2009).
Motion-sensinggamesdevelopedinthisstudyinvolvesincorporatingadventureeducationissuesintodigital
games,enablinglearnerstoimmersethemselvesinthesituation,relievetheirsubconscious,experienceandfeel
themselvesinthegamingprocess,reflectontheirinnercharacteristics,fullyexpresstheiremotionsandideas,and
takeconstructiveactiontoresolveproblemsandmature(Hsu,Lin,&Shih,2013).Digitalgameshavefunctions
suchasmetaphoricalteaching,interpersonalcommunication,self-involvement,gameimmersion,andaffective
expression.Anadvantageofdigitalgameisitssystemrecords,whichenablefacilitatorstoanalyzegroup
dynamicseffectively.Thedigitalgamedevelopedinthisstudyenablesparticipantstodiscoveranddeveloptheir
extrinsicbehaviorsandintrinsicmotivations.Thereflectionsoftheparticipantsindicatedthateffectivegaming
processenhancedtheircommunicationandproblem-solvingskillsandfacilitatedclarifyinggroupgoals.Because
theparticipantswerewillingtoshareandsupporteachother,theyexhibitedahighactionrateandstable
emotionalconditions.
Thegameisalsoaneducationalguidancemodelthatisrelatedtosituationsindailylife.Thegamedesignwas
basedontherulesofface-to-faceadventureeducationactivities.Thecontentisembeddedinthegametosimulate
real-lifesituations.Participantscangeneralize,learnaboutthemselves,anddiscovertheirpotentialtostimulate
personalgrowth.Consequently,theoriessuchaspositivereinforcement,observationallearning,andbehavioral
shapingwereappliedindesigningthegameinthisstudy.
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Inthegame,learnersinteractwitheachotherinapositiveenvironmentandareimmersedinthesocialprocess.
Thesystemgeneratespositivefeedbackandvirtualrewardstoencouragepositivebehaviors.Whenpersonal
behaviorsresultinpositivecollaboration,thebehaviorsarecarriedthroughtootherconditionsandlearning
transferoccursimmediately.Thissignifiesthattheproblem-solvingprocessiseffectiveandthattheparticipants
shouldaddresssimilarsituationsbyusingthisprocess.However,becausesituationshavevariations,distinctions
mustbemadetoenablepeopletoaddresscomplexhumaninteractionandrelationships.Repeatedgameplay
generatesvarioussocialinteractionprocesses,enablingeachplayertogeneratenewbehaviorsprogressivelyto
achievenewgoals.Learningtransferisspeculatedtooccurthroughthisprocess.
Gamedesign
Twodigitaladventureeducationgames,CorporateMazeandGroupBalancedesignedanddevelopedinthis
research,werebasedonthephysicaladventureeducationactivitiesthatarenormallyconductedtoteach
participantshowtocollaborate,solveproblems,anddemonstrateleadership.Bothgamesrequireparticipantsto
stopusingoneoftheirsensesduringphysicalinteraction.Convertingthesegamesintoadigitalformdoesnot
affecttheireffectiveness.Thegamesaredesignedtoprovidelearningsituationsthatenablelearnerstoexperience
cognitivereconstructionandengageinproblemsolving.Learnersreproducethebehaviorsinthegameto
representtheconceptofgames.
Figure1.FAASTinterface
Becausethegameinvolvedpathfinding,whichrequiredtrialanderror,thesystemneededtodetectonlyafew
bodyactionstopromptavatarmovement.FAAST(Figure1)wasusedtodifferentiatebetweenthepositionsofthe
playersandtheanglesoftheiranklesandtranslatethemintocorrespondingkeyboardevents.
Figure2.OpenNIInterface
OpenNIwasusedasmiddlewaretoconnectKinectandUnity3D.OpenNI(Figure2)definestheAPIandprovides
across-platformstructure;itisastandardinterfaceusedtoprocessgesturerecognitionandtracking.Italso
supportsmultiplayersensors,whichwererequiredinthisgametoenablecollaboration,self-exploration,and
socialinteraction.
ThemapofCorporateMazegameisa9×5gridscatteredwithlandmines.Onlyonesaferoutepassesthroughthe
maze.Everyoneintheteammusttaketurnstoparticipateintherescue.Teammemberscannotremindaplayerof
theaccurateroute;theplayermustmemorizeit.Whentheplayerstepsonalandmine,theplayermustreturnto
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thestartingpointbyfollowingtheroutebywhichheorshearrivedatthelandmineorthescoreisdeducted
(Figure3).Whenthescoreiszero,thegameisover.
Figure3.Landmineexplorationincorporatemazegame
CorporateMazeisplayedbyonegroupmemberatatimewhileothermembersofferassistance.Playersare
requiredtopassthroughthemazetoreachtheothersideoftheboard.Whenevertheysteponthemine,theymust
takethesameroutetoreturntothestartingpoint.Therefore,allmembersmustmemorizethecorrectroutesto
helpeachotherpassthroughthemaze.Thegamecanbewononlywhenthegroupmembersusetheircollective
memory,accumulatepastexperiences,shareinformation,andcommunicate.
Thesettingofthedigitalgamewasanopenfieldtoreleasesomeofthetensionofthegame(Figure3and4).The
explorationeffectsthatoccurwhenplayersmakemistakesarealarming.
Figure4.Playingcorporatemazegame
ThegoalofCorporateMazeistodeveloptrustamonggroupmembers,whomustcollaborativelymakedecisions
andconfrontchallenges.Throughcollaborativelearning,playerscanimmersethemselvesincontextuallearning,
discoverresearchvaluethroughtrialanderror,andthinkunconventionallytochallengetraditionallearning
difficulties.Attheendofthegame,playersanswerafewsimplequestionsaboutthegameprocess,suchasthe
routememorystrategies,feelingsonreturningviathesameroute,concernsregardingthelocationofthemines
andpossiblesolutions,aswellaspracticalapplicationsofthegametolife.Theplayersareaskedtodescribetheir
feelingsregardingtheunknownandtheirattemptsandtoindicatewhethertheyexperiencedhesitationabout
breakingtherulesandcontinuingthetrip.Afterthereflectionsection,thegameprovidesthefollowingfeedback.
CorporateMazesimulateslifeprogressionandremindsusthatconsolidationateverystepoflifeisessential
whenconfrontingchange.Aswepursuesuccess,wemustremembertheexperienceoffailure.The
accumulationofpastexperiencescanimprovethefuture.Intheprocess,wesearchedformines,confronted
dilemmas,andtoleratedexploration;however,withtheassistanceofpeers,communicationofsolutions,and
sharingofexperiences,wereachedthegoaltogether.Whenweperceivingadeadend,thereisalwaysaway,
outsideofrange,thatrequiresbrevityandcreativitytofind.
GroupBalanceisanoutdoorhigh-altitudeadventureactivityinvolvingaboard45metersinwidthhangingatan
85-meterheight,withtwostringsthatcanpulltheboardhightoreachthegoal(Figure5and6).Threegroup
membersparticipateineachroundofthegame.Onemembercontrolsthebalanceoftheboardandtheothertwo
memberspushtheboardontheleftandrightsides,ideallyatthesametimeandwiththesamestrength,toraise
theboard.Thegamerestartswhentheboardisdropped.Thegamerequiresthememberstobuildtrust,observe,
andsupporteachotherwhennecessary.
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Figure5.Gamecontrolinterfaceofgroupbalancegame
Figure6.Playinggroupbalancegame
GroupBalanceisanactivitythatrequiresgroupformationandrecognitionofpersonalroles.Thegameisplayed
usingcooperationtoreachthecommongoal.Intheprocess,groupmemberscreateinterpersonalconnectionsand
learnfromtheirmistakestocompletethetasks.Inthereflectionsection,participantsfirstreportontheirconcrete
experiences,suchasfeelingsabouttheirpersonalactionsthatinfluencedthegroupgoals,pressure,andsupport
fromgroupmembers,andidentifythepersonwhoactedastheleader.Regardingthepractice,theparticipantsare
askedtodescribetheattitudeandmethodtheywouldusetocoordinateagroupandcommunicatewithgroup
membersinsimilarexperiencesinthefuture,andtodescribetheirthoughtsregardingtheinterrelationship
betweenpartnersandtheactionstheywouldtaketoestablishabalance.Attheendofthegame,thefollowing
feedbackisprovided.
Theboardinthegamerepresentstrustinhumaninteraction.Trustandsupportarecomplementary.Clear
goalsandmembercomplementsholdateamtogether.Long-termtrustcansuddenlybelostbecauseofdiscreet
insensitivity.Argumentsoccur,andareagroupdynamic.Howargumentsaredealtwithinfluencesgroup
creativity.Apositivecycleofstrategies,thoughts,communication,andattitudeenablesthegrouptosucceed.
Method
Beforetheresearchcommenced,Delphimethodwasadoptedtogenerateadventureeducationthemes.Eight
expertswhohadacademicorindustrialbackgroundsandabundantexperienceinteachingorconducting
professionalpracticeinthefieldofadventureeducationwereinvitedtoparticipateintheexplorationprocessby
completingquestionnaires.Twelveadventureeducationactivitiesthatrequiredparticipantstoavoidusingoneof
theirsenses,suchasspeechorsight,wereanalyzed.Thebasicqualitiesofsuchactivitiesareappropriatefor
digitization.Afterthree-rounddiscussions,13commonthemesweregeneratedandclassifiedintotwoprimary
sections:extrinsicbehaviorsandintrinsicmotivations.Theextrinsicbehaviordomaincomprisedleadership,
communication,collaboration,support,responsibility,andactiveness,andtheintrinsicmotivationdomain
comprisedreflection,trust,creativethinking,empathy,willingnesstochange,acceptanceoffrustrationand
failure,andconfidence.TheresearchprocedureusedinthisstudyisshowninFigure7.
Pretestandposttestquestionnairesweredesignedtounderstandtheopinionsofstudentsregardingthegame
systemandtheeffectivenessofadventureeducation.Thequestionnairecoveredthe13adventureeducation
themes,eachofwhichwasassessedusingtwoitems,rankedona5-pointLikertscale,yieldingatotalof26
questions.Questions,forexample,forcommunicationaspectwas“Ithoughtgoodcommunicationbetweengroup
memberscanhelpmemberstounderstandeachotherandsolveproblemstogether”forpretest,and“Ithought
goodcommunicationsbetweenmemberscanhelpthemsolveproblems”fortheposttest.Thereliabilityofthe
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questionnairewashigh,exhibitingaCronbach’sαof.70andacoefficientofinternalconsistencyof.90.Given
thattherewere13themeswith2questionspertheme,theLikertscoresoneachthemewereaveragedand13pre-
postt-testsrunstatistically.Thenoriginalscoreswerecomparedtoviewminordifferencesbetweenthepretest
andposttestofeachthemewithqualitativedescriptions.
Figure7.Researchprocedure
Atotalof40collegestudents,agedbetween18and22,wereinvitedtoparticipateintheactivities.Theywere
equallydistributedintotwogroups,aphysicalgroupandavirtualgroup.Inthephysicalgroup,theadventure
educationgameswereconductedinpersonandguidedbyafacilitator.Inthevirtualgroup,theadventure
educationgameswereconductedphysicallywithdigitalgamesandguidedbyavirtualfacilitatorpredesignedin
thesystem.Intheprocess,studentsplayedthegamewithgroupmembers,solvedtasks,andreflectedonthe
questionsgeneratedbythesystemconcerningtheadventureeducationthemes.
Theactivityprocesseswererecordedinthesystem.Sixresearchersconductedobservationsduringtheprocessto
investigatetheengagementoftheparticipantsandtheirachievementsinadventureeducation.Reflectionsections
wereconductedaftereachgame.Afterthestudentscompletedbothgames,researchersinterviewedthemand
analyzedthedialoguetodeterminetheeffectivenessofthegames.Finally,gamesatisfactionwasevaluatedto
determineparticipants’regardingaboutthedigitalgames.
Results
Players’achievementsinlearningtheadventureeducationthemes
Thepretestandposttestquestionnaireresultsregardingtheplayers’achievementsinlearningtheadventure
educationthemes(Table1)weresummeduptotestthedifferences.Itisfoundthatthet-testscoreofthephysical
group(t=5.16,p=.000)andthevirtualgroup(t=3.61,p=.000)bothreachedsignificantdifferences.Boththe
digitaladventureeducationgamesandthephysicaladventureeducationactivitieseffectivelyenhancedthe
participants’conceptualunderstandingoftheadventureeducationthemes.
Table1.Pretestsandposttestsofplayers’achievementstotheadventureeducationthemes(n=20)
MeanSDt
PhysicalgroupPretest4.28.3335.16
Posttest4.72.514
VirtualgroupPretest4.38.3203.61
Posttest4.83.439
Note.p<.05,p<.01,p<.001.
Analysisofboththemesindicatedaslightdifferencebetweenthepretestandposttestscoresofthetwogroups.
Regardingtheextrinsicbehaviordomain,threethemes,namelyleadership,cooperation,andactiveness,exhibited
apositivedifferences(posttestscoreshigherthanpretestscores)inbothgroups,signifyingthatbothdigitalgames
andphysicalactivitieseffectivelyenableparticipantstoachievetheabilitiesaddressedinthesethemes.
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Conversely,threethemes,namelycommunication,support,andresponsibility,exhibitedlowerscoresofposttest
scorestopretestscoresinthevirtualgroup,signifyingthoseparticipantsinthevirtualgamesplacedmore
attentiononthecompletionoftasksandchallengesandwerelessawareoftheformationofsocialgroups.
Therefore,theysensedlesspersonalresponsibilityinthegroups,lesscommunicationoccurredbetweengroup
members,andthemembersshowedlesssupporttoeachother.Bycontrast,thephysicalgroupexhibitedhigher
posttestscorestopretestscoresinthesethemesbecausetheeyecontactandsenseofphysicalexistenceinvolved
inface-to-facehumaninteractioncanimprovegroupsupportandcommunication.Participantsweremorelikelyto
identifywithindividualorgroupresponsibilitiesduringtheactivitiesinsituationsofdirecthumancontactthanin
situationsofindirectcontact.
Table2.Players’achievementstotheadventureeducationthemes:Extrinsicbehaviors
ThemesPhysicalgroupVirtualgroup
PretestPosttestDifferencebetween
means
PretestPosttestDifferencebetween
means
Leadership3.783.90.123.714.270.56
Communications5.15.250.155.195.08-0.11
Cooperation4.985.030.054.734.970.24
Support4.854.980.135.074.99-0.08
Responsibility4.984.500.205.044.09-0.14
Active4.74.830.134.624.720.10
Intheextrinsicbehaviordomain,theaverageoftheposttestscoreswashigherthantheaverageofthepretest
scoresforbothgroupsintheleadership,cooperation,andactivenessthemes,indicatingthatthedigitaladventure
educationgamepositivelyaffectedthesethemes.
Leadershipreferstohowanindividualleadsagrouptowardcompletingataskwhenthegroupencounters
difficulties.Theresultsindicatethattheparticipantsactivelyparticipatedinthegameandexhibitedclear
behavioraldifferencesregardingshowingleadership.Thevirtualgroupexhibitedagreaterdifferencethanthe
physicalgroupdid,indicatingthattheparticipantswerelikelytohidebehindtechnologyandrevealtheirtrue
selvesandbehaviorswheninteractingthroughthedigitalgame.However,inthephysicalgroup,theparticipants
activelytriedtoimprovetheirself-images,causingthemtohidepartsoftheirinnerselvesfromtheothersand
changetheirresponsesaccordingtothegroupatmosphere.
Cooperationreferstohowtheparticipantscooperatewithothermemberstoachievethegroupgoal.Theresults
indicatethatthegroupsachievedgoalsmoreeffectivelywhentheparticipantscooperatedinsteadofworked
individually.Thevirtualgroupexhibitedagreaterlearningeffect,possiblybecausethedigitalgameshadhigher
failureratesthanthephysicalactivities,causingmemberstoworkcloselywitheachothertoavoidrestartingthe
game.Therefore,theparticipantsinthevirtualgroupweremoreawareoftheneedtocooperatethanwerethosein
thephysicalgroup.
Activenessreferstohowtheparticipantsactivelyconfrontedtheproblemsinthegameandsolvedthemtoachieve
thegroupgoal.Theresultsindicatethatthedigitalgamesexhibitedsimilareffectivenessinmotivatingparticipants
toactivelyparticipatetheactivities.Thephysicalgroupexhibitedmorefavorableperformanceinthistheme
becausetheseparticipantsexperiencedgreaterpressuretoconstructpersonalimagesandimproveinterpersonal
relationships.
Regardingthecommunication,support,andresponsibilitythemesintheextrinsicbehaviordomain,thesignificant
differencesobservedinthephysicalgroupweregreaterthanthoseobservedinthevirtualgroup.Communication
referstohowtheparticipantscommunicatedwitheachotherwhenencounteringdifficulties.Communicationcan
enhanceinterpersonalrelationshipsandestablishfavorablegroupcooperation.Theresultsindicatethatinthe
virtualgroup,theposttestscore(m=5.08)waslowerthanthepretestscore(m=5.19),possiblybecausethe
participantsinthephysicalgrouptendedtocommunicatewitheachothertogeneratesolutions.Theyapproached
thegamesslowlyandlistenedtoeachotherbeforetakingaction.However,tocompletethetasksinthedigital
games,theparticipantsfeltlittleneedtocommunicate.Inaddition,theparticipantsseemedeagertofinishthetask
sothatcommunicationdidnotoccuroften;thiswasineffective.Furthermore,theparticipantsinthevirtualgroup
tendedtoworkalone.
Supportreferstohowtheparticipantsprovidedfellowgroupmemberswithsupportandworkedtowardthegoal
collectively.Theresultsalsoindicatethatinthevirtualgroup,theposttestscore(m=4.99)waslowerthanthe
pretestscore(m=5.07).
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Responsibilityreferstohowtheparticipantshelpedfellowgroupmembersgrowtogetherandregardedthemselves
ascrucialmembersinthegroup.Theresultsindicatethatinthevirtualgroup,theposttestscore(m=4.09)was
lowerthanthepretestscore(m=5.04).Thisisbecausethedigitalgameparticipantsdidnotseetherelationship
betweenthemselvesandthegroup,andregardedthegametasksastheirpersonalresponsibilities.Theyhesitated
toprovideotherswithsupport.However,inthephysicalgroup,theparticipantsinteracteddirectly,stimulating
interpersonalinteraction.
Overall,thestudyrevealedthatthephysicalgroupexhibitedsignificantdifferencesbetweenthepretestand
posttestscoresineverythemeoftheintrinsicbehaviordomain.However,inthevirtualgroup,communication,
support,andresponsibilitywerelessobservablethantheywereinthephysicalgroup.Theposttestscoreswere
lowerthanpretestscores,indicatingthatdigitalgamescannoteffectivelyincreaseparticipants’communication
abilityandreducetheirabilitytoshowsupporttoothers.
Regardingintrinsicmotivation,fourthemes,namelyreflection,creativethinking,acceptingfrustrationsand
failures,andconfidence,theposttestscoreswerehigherthanpretestscoresinbothgroups,signifyingthatboth
digitalgamesandphysicalactivitieseffectivelyenableparticipantstoachievetheseabilities.
Threethemes,namelytrust,empathy,andwillingnesstochange,theposttestscoreswerelowerthanpretestscores
inthephysicalgroup,indicatingthatindividuals’internalfeelingsandthoughtswerelessevidentinsituationsof
directhumancontactthaninsituationsofindirectcontact.Bycontrast,becausethedigitalenvironmentcreatesa
senseofprivatespace,peoplecaneasilyexhibittheircare,concern,empathy,andwillingnesstochangewithout
worryingaboutface.
Table3.Players’achievementstotheadventureeducationthemes:Intrinsicmotivations
ProjectPhysicalgroupVirtualgroup
PretestPosttestDifference
betweenmeans
PretestPosttestDifference
betweenmeans
Reflection4.454.580.134.544.620.08
Trust4.754.7504.424.750.33
CreativeThinking4.454.730.284.524.750.20
Empathy5.24.98-0.224.835.000.17
WillingToChange5.084.73-0.354.544.790.25
AcceptFrustrationsand
Failures
3.634.40.773.684.630.95
Confidence4.284.60.324.434.740.31
Intheintrinsicmotivationdomain,theaverageposttestscorewashigherthantheaveragepretestscoreofboth
groupsinthereflection,creativethinking,acceptanceoffrustrationandfailure,andconfidencethemes,indicating
thatdigitaladventureeducationgamesaresimilarlyeffectiveormoreeffectivecomparedwithphysicalactivities.
Reflectionreferstohowtheparticipantsansweredtheirquestionsthroughreflection,personallearning,and
growth.Theresultsindicatethatbothgroupsexhibitedasimilarunderstandingofthistheme.Thephysicalgroup
exhibitedmorefavorableperformanceinthisthemethanthedigitalgroupdidbecausethefacilitatorledthe
discussionbyusingin-depthobservationsandestablishedtechniques.Althoughthevirtualgroupreceivedthe
samequestionsasthephysicalgroupdid,theparticipantsdirectlyrespondedtothequestionswithoutbeing
instructedtoelaborateorclarify.
Trustreferstohowparticipantsbelievedinothergroupmemberstooffersupportandassistance.Theresults
indicatethatthevirtualgroupexhibitedclearerdifferencesthanthephysicalgroupdid;thismayhavebeen
becausetheparticipantstendedtohidebehindtechnologyratherthanprovideassistancetoothers.Theyfeltsafe
andrelaxed,andwerenotconcernedwithembarrassment,whichfrequentlyoccursinactivitiesinvolvingdirect
humancontact.
Creativethinkingreferstohowparticipantsdeterminesolutionsbyusingunconventionalthinkingmodelsand
frameworks.Theresultsindicatethatthephysicalgroupexhibitedmorefavorableperformanceinthisthemethan
thevirtualgroupdidbecauseface-to-facesituationsstimulatecommunicationandcreativethoughtsmorethanthe
laggeddiscussionindigitalgamesdoes.
Acceptanceoffrustrationsandfailurereferstohowtheparticipantsremainedwillingtofacechallengeswhen
failureoccurred.Theresultsindicatethattheparticipantsinthevirtualgroupexhibitedahigheracceptancelevel
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thandidthoseinthephysicalgroup,possiblybecausetheygenerallyplaythegamesfromthethird-person
perspectiveandfeelmoredistantfromthedirectconsequencesoffailure.
Confidencereferstohowtheparticipantscollaboratedwithgroupmemberstosolveproblemsandincreasetheir
self-confidence.Theresultsindicatethatthevirtualandphysicalgroupsexhibitedasimilargroupatmosphere;
specifically,theybothcompletedtaskscollectivelyandgainedconfidenceaftercompletingthetasks.
Regardingintrinsicmotivation,thevirtualgroupexhibitedmorefavorableperformancethanthephysicalgroup
didinseveralthemes.Empathyreferstohowtheparticipantsconsideredothermembers’needs.Inthephysical
group,thepretestscore(m=5.20)washigherthantheposttestscore(m=4.98).Inthevirtualgroup,theposttest
score(m=5.00)washigherthanthepretestscore(m=4.83).Theseresultsindicatedthatempathyisaninner
thoughtthatcanbemoreeasilyrevealedindigitalspacethanintheface-to-facesituations.Becauseofshyness
andembarrassment,thedigitalspaceprovidesparticipantswithasafeplaceinwhichinnerthoughtscanbe
revealedeasily.
Willingnesstochangereferstohowtheparticipantsregardedmakingchangesandgeneratingnewideasasavital
factortoself-development.Inthephysicalgroup,thepretestscore(m=5.08)washigherthantheposttestscore
(m=4.73).Inthevirtualgroup,theposttestscore(m=4.79)washigherthanthepretestscore(m=4.54).In
digitalgames,innovationseemstobeanessentialcharacteristic.
Satisfactionwiththedigitaladventureeducationgame
Digitaltoolswereusedtodevelopanadventureeducationgametocreatealearningexperiencesimilarto
traditionalface-to-faceactivities.Thedesignofthegamesystemandcontentbothinfluencedtheparticipants’
gamingexperienceandaffectedtheirlearningeffectiveness.Therefore,thesatisfactionquestionnaireinvestigated
whetherthegamesuccessfullyconveyedtheadventureeducationcharacteristicsandgoalsbyrecordingthe
participants’viewsandgamesatisfaction.
Thequestionnaireconsistedofeightquestions.Theoverallsystemevaluationaveragescorewashigh(m=4.59).
Challengeexhibitedthehighestscore(m=4.85),indicatingthatthegamecontainedappropriatedifficultylevels
andchallenges.Theparticipantssolvedproblems,therebydevelopingtheirproblem-solvingabilities.Inaddition,
theirreflectionabilitywasenhancedafterplayingthedigitaladventureeducationgame(m=4.73).All
participantscouldeasilymanipulatethegameaccordingtotheirpersonalneeds(m=4.60).Thelowestscorewas
theinteractionscore(m=4.40),indicatingthatparticipantsmostlyundertookpersonalchallengeswhileplaying
thegame.Theimmersionscore(m=4.50)indicatedthatthescenariosofthegamecanbeimproved.
Discussionandconclusion
Meta-learningisamajorfocusofthisstudy.Inthegame,thereflectionsectionwasdesignedtogenerate
synthesisfeedbackafterthegame.
IntheCorporateMazereflections,participantsfeltthatthemostdifficultaspectsofthegameweredetermining
thenextstepandexperiencingdoubtregardingthechoice.Exploringtheunknownmadethemnervous,butthe
processencouragedthemtomakebraveattempts.Groupmembersneededtorememberthecorrectrouteeven
thoughtheywerenottheplayer.Inaddition,theparticipantslearnedthat“breakingtheframe”iscrucial.
Creativityandinnovationwerenecessarytotakestepstowardthegoal.Suchlessonsaresimilartomakinglife
choiceswhilefacingtheunknown.
IntheGroupBalancegamereflections,theparticipantsreportedthatthemostessentialaspectsofcooperationare
personalroles,nurturingatacitsenseofconnection,andobservingothers’needs.Theyneededtoencourage
insteadofblameeachotherwhenfailingthetaskandstaycalmduringthechallenges.Onlycommunicationcould
enablethemtosuccessfullybalancetheboard.Whiletheyplayedthegame,theylearnedtheimportanceof
cooperationandcommunication,andthataleaderisnecessarytomediatethecommunication.Duringtheprocess,
mostleaderswerethosestandinginthecenterandcontrollingtheboard.Mostrecordedsoundswerethescreams
ofgroupmembersanddirectionsfromtheleaders.
Thegoalofthisresearchwastoencouragetheparticipantstoexplorethemselvesthroughtheadventureeducation
activitiesandtoenhancetheirinteractionswithotherpeople.Inthedigitalgame,acommunitywasdevelopedin
188
whichtheparticipantscouldcommunicate,cooperate,achievegroupgoals,andestablishself-confidence.Through
digitaltools,thelearningspacewasextendedtothevirtualspacewhichimprovesfreedomandcomfort.Usingthe
digitalgames,facilitatorsandresearcherscanrecordthegamingprocess,provideinformation,andassistthe
participantsinconductingcognitivereconstruction.Theycansolveproblemsandmodifytheirbehaviors.The
participantslearnedstrategiesthatcanbeusedinthefuture,andtheirself-efficacyimproved.
Researchresultshaveindicatedthatteenagersexperiencedagreatersenseofbelongingtothegroupsand
identificationwithdigitalgames.Adventureeducationisaseriesofeducationalactivitiesthatusethephysical
senses.Reflectionsessionsarethecoreofadventureeducation,andareusedtoformgroupidentities.Everygroup
taskrequiresproblem-solvingskills,theuseofwhichcausesindividualstoappreciatetheimportanceofpersonal
responsibilitytothegroup.ThisisthepracticeofKolb’sexperientiallearning.
Digitaladventureeducationgamesfocusongroupcooperationandinterpersonalinteraction;therefore,thedesign
shouldbeginwitheducationalapplicationsandcanbedevelopedfurthertobecomeanindependentteaching
moduleusedbyschoolteachersasclassroomactivitytools.Teacherscanthusenrichtheteachingcontentand
enablestudentstodeveloppositivethinkingandstrengthentheirskills.
Fromtheobservationandinterviewresults,thedigitalgameprovidesasafedistanceforthestudentsbetween
theirselfandthesub-consciousness,andfunctionsasacommunicationmeansforsocialinteraction.Itenables
learnerstoexperienceandfeelthemselvesinthegamingprocess,reflectontheirinnercharacteristics,fully
expressandrevealtheiremotions,ideas,experiences,andbehaviors,whichfosterthestrengthtochangeand
mature.
Throughmultiplayerdigitalgames,playerscanreflectonkeyelementssuchasteamwork,trust,responsibility,
problemsolving,decisionmaking,leadership,goalsetting,andcommunication,becausethegamesareembedded
withmetaphoricalteachings,interpersonalcommunication,self-involvement,gameimmersion,andemotional
liberationfunctions.
Learningusingdigitalgamescanmotivatelearnersmorethantraditionallearningcan.Inthisstudy,compared
withtraditionallearning,moreknowledgecanbegainedandlearningtransferwasstrongerandmorepredictable
inlearningusingdigitalgames.
Intraditionaladventureeducationactivities,facilitatorscannotobserveeachparticipantandrecordthecomplete
processofeverygame.Facilitatorscanonlyreflectonspecificinteractionevents,replytogroupinterviews,and
providefeedbackandguidancebasedontheirfeelingsatthetime.Precisioninindividualisticfeedbackis
thereforedifficult.However,digitalgamesystemcanrepresenttheprocessofphysicaladventureeducation
activitiesandinvolvesprovidingpersonalfeedback.Thegamingexperiencecanbeanalyzedusinglearning
assessmentsandproblemidentificationmethods.Inaddition,motion-sensinggamesemphasizemetacognitive
developmentthroughthediscussionofmetaphorsthatarehelpfulandessentialforlearningachievement.
Adventureeducationactivitieshavediversifiedcharacteristicsandvalues;theyarewidelyusedinvarious
curricula.However,digitaltechnologyhasnotbeenintegratedbecausepersonalexperienceisitsmostcrucial
element.Thisstudyexploitedthesimplicityanddiversityofdigitaltechnologytocomplementthelimitationsof
physicalactivities.Inthetransformationfromaphysicalenvironmenttoavirtualenvironment,personal
experience,fun,andreflectionsareretainedintheactivitieswhenusersareimmersedinagame.Through
multiplayerdigitalgames,playerscanreflectonkeyelementssuchasteamwork,trust,responsibility,problem
solving,decisionmaking,leadership,goalsetting,andcommunication,becausedigitalgamesareembeddedwith
metaphoricalteachings,interpersonalcommunication,self-involvement,gameimmersion,andemotionliberation
functions.Itisevidentinthisstudythatitiseffectivetoadvanceadventureeducationactivitieswithdigitalgame,
especiallymotion-sensinggames.
Acknowledgments
ThisstudyissupportedinpartbytheMinistryofScienceandTechnology(previouslyknownasNational
ScienceCouncil)oftheRepublicofChina,undercontractnumbersNSC100-2628-S-024-002-MY3andNSC
101-2511-S-024-009-MY3.
189
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